Humboldt Penguin Spheniscushumboldti
This species has undergone extreme population size fluctuations, (close to one order of magnitude) at major colonies in Chile. However, an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicates that there is probably an ongoing, underlying rapid decline in numbers. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International. SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Black head with white border extending from eye around ear coverts and chin, and joining on throat. Blackish grey upperparts. Whitish underparts with black breast band extending down flanks to thigh. Fleshy pink base to bill. Juvenile has wholly dark head (greyer on sides and chin) and lacks breast band. Similar spp. Magellanic Penguin S. It has been declining since the mid 19th century, but the 1982 1983 El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000 21,000 birds to 5,180 6,080 (Hays 1984, Hays 1986, Ellis et al. 1998). By 1995 1996, this had increased to 10,000 12,000 birds (Cheney 1998). The 1997 1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds (P. Majluf in litt. 1999). In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 1996 (Ellis et al. 1998), but had recovered to six by 1999 (T. Valqui in litt. 1999). In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies (Paredes et al. 2003). A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds (American Bird Conservancy in litt. 2007). The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984 1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the north and central coastal areas in 1999 (Paredes et al. 2003). In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently (Ellis et al. 1998). Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Chaaral Island. A repeat visit to Chaarapatagonia new fleecel in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting (Ayala et al. 2007). Majluf in litt. (1999). (1998), Hays (1984, 1986) and from P. Majluf in litt. 1998). It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001). Reproductive behaviour Breeding occurs year round, but has two peaks, in May andpatagonia hiking shoes cheap2 July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile (Cheney 1998), though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan) (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001). Migratory range There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru and occasionally over 600 km (Culik and Luna Jorquera 1997, Wallace et al. 1999). Diet It feeds on schooling anchoveta Engraulis ringens, squid and other small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders travelling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years (Taylor et al. 2004). Foraging range Humboldt Penguins are central place foragers during the breeding season, since they must return to their nests between foraging trips. As a pelagic predator, the Humboldt Penguin is highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal waters near its nesting sites (Taylor et al. 2001). It typically makes short, shallow dives within 30 m of the surface (Taylor et al. 2001). At Isla Pan de Azcar, Chile, it was found that maximum dive depth was 53 m. Mean distance travelled during foraging trips was 26.5 km, with a minimum and maximum distance of 8.1 and 68.7 km respectivnew $329 m's patagonia primaloft h2no alpine climbing ski nano storm jacket xxlely. 90% of the birds remained within 35 km of their breeding colony (Culik et al. 1998, Luna Jorquera and Culik 1999). At Puntapatagonia hiking shoes cheap3 San Juan, Peru, the average maximum distance from the colony of all foraging trips was 19.8 km (Boersma et al. 2006). Following breeding failure, non breeding birds take longer foraging trips, make deeper and longer dives and dive less often per hour at sea than do patagonia outlet store 01breeding birds (Taylor et al. 2002). Mean and maximum foraging trip duration were both sigpatagonia outlet store 52nificantly longer in failed breeders than in breeding birds (Taylor et al. 2007). Historical declines resulted from over exploitation of guano (Williams, T. D. 1995). Guano is still harvested in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001). Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probablpatagonia discount code alamoy relate to over fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks (Williams, T. D. 1995, Cheney 1patagonia hiking shoes cheap1998, Wallace et al. 1999). Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fishermen, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution (Cheney 1998, Ellis et al. 1998, Ayala et al. 2007). patagonia hiking shoes cheap0One of the major breeding sites in northern Chile is currently threatened by the construction of two coal fired power stations (G. Knauf in litt. 2009).Conservation Actions UnderwayCITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile there is apatagonia discount code zoosk 30 year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected (Vilina et al. 1995, Cheney 1998). In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction (American Bird Conservancy in litt. 2007). There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan (Cheney 1998, P. Majluf in litt. 1999). Campaigning has prevented the construction of one coal mine at Punta Choros, though two more may still be built (G. Knauf in litt. 2009). Conservation Actions ProposedMonitor the population throughout its breeding range (Ellis etpatagonia everlong review zulily al. 1998). Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting (Ellis et al. 1998). Create marine reserves around colpatagonia everlong review 5500onies (Ellis et al. 1998). Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch (Ellis et al. 1998, American Bird Conservancy in litt. 2007). Reduce fish harvests around major colonies (American Bird Conservancy in litt. 2007) and elsewhere during ENSO events (Ellis et al. 1998). Improve waste treatment in coastal regions (Ellis et al. 1998).Related state of the world s birds case studiesSeabirds suffer from eating junk Ayala, L.; Snchez, R.; Kelez, S.; and Vsquez, F. 2007. Estudio poblacional del Pingino de Humboldt Spheniscus humboldti en la costa centro y sur del Per en el invierno del 2004.Boersma, P. D.; Redstock, G. A.; Stokes, D. L.; Majluf P. 2006. Oceans apart: conservation models for two temperate penguin species shaped by the marine environment. Marine Progress Series 335: 217 225.Cheney, C. 1998. The current situation of the Humbolt Penguin in Chile and Peru: a report from the population and habitat viability analysis meeting, part 1. Penguin Conservation 11: 4 9.Culik, B. M.; Luna Jorquera, G. 1997. Satellite tracking of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in northern Chile. Maripatagonia guide pants qvcne Biology 128: 547 556.Ellis, S.; Croxall, J. P.; Cooper, J. 1998. Penguin conservation assessment and management plan: report from the workshop held 8 9 September 1996, Cape Town, South Africa. IUCN/SSC, Apple Valley, USA.Hays, C. 1984. The Humboldt Penguin in Peru. Oryx 18: 92 95.Hays, C. 1986. Effects of the 1982 83 El Nio on Humboldt Penguin patagonia hiking shoes cheapcolonies in Peru. Biological Conservation 36: 169 180.Morales Sanchez, J. E. 1988. Confirmacin de la presencia de Spheniscus humboldti Meyen (Aves: Spheniscidae) Para Colombia. Trianea (Acta Cientifica y Tecnologia INDERENA): 141 143.
